What is classical conditioning?;Learning through association where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. What distinguishes a UCS from a CS?;A UCS naturally elicits a response without learning, whereas a CS acquires this ability through association. In classical conditioning, what happens during extinction?;The conditioned response decreases when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. What did the Little Albert experiment demonstrate?;Fear can be learned through classical conditioning. What is the law of effect?;Behavior followed by satisfying consequences is more likely to be repeated. What is operant conditioning?;Learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences. What is positive reinforcement?;Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior. What is negative reinforcement?;Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior. What is the key distinction between positive and negative reinforcement?;Both increase behavior, but one adds a stimulus while the other removes one. What is intermittent reinforcement?;Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, making it more resistant to extinction. Why does intermittent reinforcement maintain problematic behaviors (e.g., gambling)?;Because unpredictable rewards strengthen persistence of behavior. What is modeling?;Learning through observing and imitating others. What did Bandura’s modeling research show?;Behavior (e.g., fear, aggression) can be learned without direct reinforcement. What is a key mechanism behind modeling?;Observation of others influences behavior without direct experience. What is cognition in psychopathology?;How thoughts and appraisals influence behavior and emotions. How do appraisals influence behavior?;Different interpretations of the same situation lead to different emotional and behavioral responses. What is the core idea of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?;Changing thoughts can change emotions and behavior. Why did cognition become important in psychology after the 1960s?;Researchers recognized that thinking patterns strongly influence behavior. What are the three main learning processes in behaviorism?;Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling. What is behaviorism?;A focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. What is psychopathology?;The study of psychological disorders. What is stigma?;Negative beliefs and attitudes that lead to discrimination against people with psychological disorders. Why is stigma important in clinical psychology?;It affects treatment, social perception, and quality of life. What are the three key criteria for defining psychological disorders?;Distress, dysfunction, and disability. Why is no single criterion sufficient to define a disorder?;Because each captures only part of what constitutes abnormal behavior. What is a major historical shift in understanding psychological disorders?;From supernatural explanations to biological and psychological models. What characterized supernatural explanations of disorders?;Belief that disorders were caused by demons or evil spirits. What is a key contribution of Freud to psychopathology?;Emphasis on unconscious processes and early experiences. What is transference in psychoanalysis?;Interpreting the therapist-client relationship as reflecting other relationships. What is a limitation of psychodynamic theories?;They are difficult to test scientifically. What was a major problem with early biological treatments (e.g., lobotomy)?;They were often harmful and lacked scientific support. What is a modern limitation of medication treatments?;They can have significant side effects. What is a key historical lesson regarding treatment systems?;Closing hospitals created gaps in care for severe disorders. What is a current societal issue related to severe psychological disorders?;Many individuals end up in prisons rather than receiving treatment. What distinguishes a clinical psychologist from a psychiatrist?;Clinical psychologists focus on assessment and therapy, while psychiatrists prescribe medication. What degree does a psychiatrist hold?;An M.D. What is the main difference between a Ph.D. and Psy.D. in clinical psychology?;Ph.D. emphasizes research, Psy.D. emphasizes clinical practice. What is the primary role of social workers in mental health?;Providing psychotherapy with less focus on assessment. What is a key takeaway from history in clinical psychology?;Progress has been made, but stigma and treatment limitations remain.