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What is conflict in organizations?	A process in which one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about.
What are the three common consequences of conflict?	Less information sharing and coordination, stress, and sometimes better decision making when the conflict concerns tasks.
What is task conflict?	Disagreements about the content of the work, such as ideas, opinions, or approaches to completing a task.
What is relationship conflict?	Conflict based on personal incompatibilities, emotions, or interpersonal tension.
Which type of conflict can sometimes improve decision quality?	Task conflict.
Which type of conflict is usually harmful for performance and cooperation?	Relationship conflict.
Peter and Annie disagree about how to start a presentation. What type of conflict is this?	Task conflict because they disagree about the content and approach to the task.
When does a task conflict turn into a relationship conflict?	When the disagreement becomes personal, emotional, or involves accusations.
Example: Annie says “You always want to do everything your way!”. What type of conflict is this?	Relationship conflict.
What is a structural source of conflict?	An organizational condition that creates conflict between individuals or groups.
Name three structural sources of conflict.	Differentiation, incompatible goals, and ambiguous rules.
What is differentiation as a source of conflict?	When departments or groups develop different goals, values, cultures, or perspectives.
Example: Marketing wants to launch a product quickly while technicians want more testing. What source of conflict is this?	Incompatible goals.
What is ambiguous rules as a source of conflict?	When roles, responsibilities, or procedures are unclear.
What structural solution helps resolve incompatible goals?	Emphasizing superordinate goals.
What are superordinate goals?	Goals that are shared by all groups and require cooperation to achieve.
Why do superordinate goals reduce conflict?	They align different groups toward a common objective.
Why do unclear procedures create conflict?	Because employees do not know expectations, responsibilities, or authority.
What structural solution addresses differentiation between departments?	Increasing communication and cooperation between groups.
Why does differentiation cause conflict?	Departments develop different priorities, expertise, and cultures.
What intervention helps reduce conflict caused by differentiation?	Employee rotation and cross-department collaboration.
What is the purpose of employee rotation in conflict management?	To increase understanding of other departments’ perspectives.
What is a communication-based conflict intervention?	Giving conflicting parties opportunities to communicate and understand each other.
When is improving communication especially effective?	When conflict results from differentiation between groups.
Why must cultural differences be considered in communication interventions?	Because communication styles, norms, and expectations differ across cultures.
What two factors should be considered when improving communication between groups?	Cultural differences and mutual understanding.
What is interdependence in organizations?	The extent to which individuals or departments depend on each other to complete tasks.
How can interdependence influence conflict?	High interdependence can increase conflict if coordination fails.
What structural solution can reduce conflict caused by strong interdependence?	Reducing interdependence between tasks or departments.
What is the difference between structural and interpersonal conflict management?	Structural approaches change organizational conditions, while interpersonal approaches focus on behavior between individuals.
Why can task conflict improve decision making?	It introduces different perspectives and encourages critical evaluation.
Why must task conflict be managed carefully?	Because it can easily escalate into relationship conflict.
What is the main danger of relationship conflict?	It increases stress and reduces cooperation and performance.
Why do organizations try to minimize relationship conflict?	Because it harms teamwork and productivity.
Why are conflicts common between departments?	Departments have different goals, responsibilities, and perspectives.
What is the goal of conflict management?	To reduce destructive conflict while maintaining constructive disagreement about tasks.
What role does management play in structural conflict solutions?	Management can change structures, rules, goals, and communication systems to reduce conflict.
Why are structural solutions often more effective than individual interventions?	They address the root organizational causes of conflict.
Why is communication important in organizations?	It coordinates work, shares knowledge, improves decisions, changes behavior, and supports employee well-being.
What is effective communication?	The receiver accurately understands the sender’s intended meaning.
What is encoding in the communication process?	Putting an intended message into words, gestures, voice intonations, or other symbols before sending it.
What is transmitting in the communication process?	Sending the encoded message through a communication channel.
What is decoding in the communication process?	Interpreting and making sense of the received message.
What are codebooks in communication?	Shared systems of symbols, language, gestures, and meanings used to communicate.
Why does translating a business card into another language improve communication?	It improves encoding so the receiver can understand the message using a more similar codebook.
Why do people from different cultures often have communication problems even when they speak the same language?	They may differ in codebooks, voice intonation, nonverbal meaning, silence, and conversational norms.
What are shared mental models in communication?	Shared understandings of the topic or communication context.
Why do shared mental models improve communication?	They help sender and receiver interpret the situation and message in a similar way.
What are the four factors that improve effective encoding and decoding?	Similar codebooks, shared mental models, sender experience in encoding, and sender and receiver motivation and ability to use the chosen channel.
What are advantages of digital written communication?	It is fast, editable, searchable, can reach many people, and works well for clear and well-defined information.
What are disadvantages of digital written communication?	It communicates emotion poorly, increases overload, can reduce politeness, and works poorly for ambiguous or complex issues.
Why can digital written communication reduce status differences?	It makes interaction more equal and less shaped by formal hierarchy.
How does nonverbal communication differ from verbal communication?	It is less rule-bound and more automatic and nonconscious.
What is emotional contagion?	Automatically catching and mirroring another person’s emotions through nonverbal behavior.
What is synchronicity in communication channels?	The extent to which sender and receiver communicate at the same time or at different times.
When are synchronous channels best?	When the issue is urgent or complex and rapid feedback is useful.
When are asynchronous channels best?	When timing is less urgent, it is costly to communicate at the same time, or the receiver needs time to reflect.
What is social presence in a communication channel?	The extent to which a channel creates psychological closeness and awareness of another person’s humanness.
When is high social presence especially valuable?	When people need to empathize with or influence each other.
What is social acceptance of a communication channel?	The extent to which others support using that channel for that purpose.
What three factors influence social acceptance of a channel?	Organizational or team norms, individual preferences and skills, and the symbolic meaning of the channel.
What is symbolic meaning in communication?	The message conveyed by the channel itself, such as urgency, status, or respect.
What is media richness?	A channel’s data-carrying capacity, meaning the amount and variety of information it can transmit.
What features make a channel high in media richness?	Multiple cues, timely feedback, customized messages, and complex symbols.
When is high media richness most needed?	When the situation is ambiguous, nonroutine, or complex.
Why do digital channels sometimes have more richness than media richness theory predicts?	People can multi-communicate, users vary in proficiency, and lean channels have fewer social distractions.
What is information overload?	A situation where the amount of information exceeds a person’s processing capacity.
What are two ways to reduce information overload?	Increase processing capacity, or reduce information load by buffering, omitting, or summarizing.
What are common communication barriers?	Perceptual errors, language problems, jargon, filtering, information overload, and cross-cultural differences.
What is filtering in communication?	Deliberately altering or withholding information as it moves through the communication process.
What are important cross-cultural communication differences?	Language, voice intonation, silence, conversational overlap, and nonverbal meaning.
How can you get your message across more effectively?	Empathize, repeat the message, use timing effectively, and be descriptive rather than evaluative.
What is active listening?	Listening that involves sensing, evaluating, and responding carefully to understand the speaker.
What behaviors characterize active listening?	Postponing evaluation, avoiding interruption, showing interest, empathizing, organizing information, and clarifying the message.
What is power in organizations?	The capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
What is the difference between power and influence?	Power is the potential to change attitudes or behavior, while influence is the actual attempt to change them.
According to the dependence model, when does person A have power over person B?	When person B perceives that person A controls a valuable resource that helps B reach a goal, creating asymmetric dependence.
What is asymmetric dependence?	One party depends more on the other for valued resources or outcomes.
What is countervailing power?	The capacity of the less powerful party to keep the stronger party in the relationship.
Why is trust necessary for power relationships?	Because the less powerful party must believe the more powerful party can and will provide the valued resource.
What is legitimate power?	Power based on agreement that people in specific positions have the right to request certain behaviors.
What is the zone of indifference?	The range of behaviors people are willing to perform at another person’s request.
What factors increase the zone of indifference?	Trust, supportive organizational culture, and values such as conformity or power distance.
What is information control as a form of legitimate power?	The right to control what information others receive, which creates power through gatekeeping and framing.
What is expert power?	Power based on possessing knowledge or skills that others value.
Why is managing uncertainty an important source of expert power?	People gain power by preventing, forecasting, or absorbing environmental changes.
What is reward power?	Power based on controlling rewards that others value.
What is coercive power?	Power based on the ability to apply punishment or negative consequences.
What is referent power?	Power based on identification with, admiration for, or respect for the power holder.
What is nonsubstitutability as a contingency of power?	Power increases when the resource has few alternatives and cannot easily be replaced.
How can someone increase the nonsubstitutability of a resource?	Differentiate it, control access to it, or develop a personal brand.
What is centrality as a contingency of power?	The extent to which many people depend on you and are affected by what you do.
What is visibility as a contingency of power?	The extent to which others know that you hold a valued resource.
What is discretion as a contingency of power?	The freedom to exercise judgment in using power.
Why does power increase with visibility?	Because power does not flow to people whose expertise or resources are unknown.
How do social networks increase power?	They provide social capital, visibility, information access, and centrality.
What is social capital?	Knowledge, opportunities, and support available through social network relationships.
What is influence in organizations?	Any behavior that attempts to alter another person’s attitudes or behavior.
What is silent authority as an influence tactic?	The power holder’s request or mere presence influences behavior through subtle legitimate power.
What is assertiveness as an influence tactic?	Directly reminding, checking, demanding, or pressuring someone to comply.
What is information control as an influence tactic?	Manipulating another person’s access to information to shape attitudes or behavior.
What is coalition formation?	Pooling the resources and power of several people to influence others.
Why can coalition formation be effective?	It pools power, signals that the issue is important, and can increase identification with the group.
What is upward appeal?	Invoking higher authority, expertise, policies, or organizational values to support your position.
What is persuasion as an influence tactic?	Using facts, logic, and emotional appeals to change another person’s beliefs or attitudes.
When is persuasion especially effective?	When the persuader seems credible, the arguments are strong, and the communication channel has high social presence and richness.
What is impression management?	Actively shaping how other people perceive you.
What is exchange as an influence tactic?	Offering resources or favors in return for desired behavior.
What are the three main consequences of influence attempts?	Commitment, compliance, and resistance.
What is compliance?	Doing what is requested mainly for instrumental reasons, usually with minimal effort.
What is commitment?	Strong internal support for the request, leading to motivated implementation even without external pressure.
What is resistance?	Opposing the influence attempt either openly or indirectly.
Why do soft influence tactics usually work better than hard tactics?	Soft tactics rely more on expert and referent power, build commitment, and maintain trust.
What are hard influence tactics usually based on?	Legitimate, reward, and coercive power.
What are the three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic?	The influencer’s power base, the target’s organizational position, and personal, organizational, and cultural values.
What is organizational politics?	Using influence tactics for personal gain at the perceived expense of others and the organization.
Why is organizational politics usually harmful?	It lowers satisfaction, trust, commitment, and performance while increasing stress and turnover.
What conditions reduce organizational politics?	Sufficient resources, clear allocation rules, effective change management, and norms that discourage self-serving behavior.
If a manager reassigns you from waiter to dishwasher, which power source is being used?	Legitimate power.
If you help a coworker because they helped you before, which power source is most involved?	Legitimate power through the norm of reciprocity.
If you threaten to report a group member so they may be excluded, which power source is used?	Coercive power.
Social networks potentially increase which forms of power?	Expert power, visibility, and referent power.
If a communication channel is chosen because it feels more appropriate and accepted for the situation, which concept is this?	Social acceptance.
If exchanging business cards is highly ceremonial in one culture and casual in another, this mainly reflects differences in what?	The symbolic meaning of the communication practice.
What is leadership?	The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward organizational effectiveness and success.
What is shared leadership?	The idea that leadership is broadly distributed across team members rather than assigned to one person.
What is the key idea behind shared leadership?	Leadership is a role, not a position.
When does shared leadership work best?	When formal leaders delegate power, the culture is collaborative rather than competitive, and employees have effective influence skills.
Why does shared leadership work poorly in competitive cultures?	Because competition discourages employees from supporting each other’s leadership efforts.
What are the four leadership perspectives discussed in the lecture?	Personal attributes, managerial, transformational, and implicit leadership.
What does the personal attributes perspective focus on?	Personal characteristics that increase leadership potential or effectiveness.
Which leadership perspective includes emotional intelligence?	The personal attributes perspective.
What are the eight leadership attributes emphasized in the materials?	Personality, self-concept, leadership motivation, drive, integrity, cognitive/practical intelligence, knowledge of the business, and emotional intelligence.
Which Big Five traits are most strongly associated with effective leadership?	Extraversion and conscientiousness.
What is leadership motivation?	A strong desire to lead others, especially through socialized power directed toward organizational goals.
What is the difference between socialized power and personalized power?	Socialized power is used to achieve organizational or collective goals, whereas personalized power is used for personal gain or dominance.
What is drive as a leadership attribute?	Inner motivation to pursue goals, take initiative, and push forward despite obstacles.
Why is integrity important for leaders?	It builds trust because the leader’s words and actions are consistent and morally grounded.
What is practical intelligence in leadership?	The ability to solve real-world problems where information is incomplete and solutions are uncertain.
What is emotional intelligence in leadership?	The ability to recognize and regulate emotions in oneself and others.
What is authentic leadership?	Leadership based on self-awareness and acting consistently with one’s own values and identity.
What does “know yourself” mean in authentic leadership?	Use self-reflection and feedback to understand your values, strengths, weaknesses, and life story.
What does “be yourself” mean in authentic leadership?	Develop your own style, apply your values, and maintain a positive core self-evaluation.
What is a limitation of the personal attributes perspective?	It assumes the same traits are equally effective in all situations and focuses more on leadership potential than actual performance.
Why is leadership more complex than just personal attributes?	Because it also depends on the situation and on how followers perceive the leader.
What is managerial leadership?	Daily activities that support employee performance and well-being to achieve current objectives efficiently.
How does managerial leadership differ from transformational leadership?	Managerial leadership focuses on current goals and efficiency, while transformational leadership focuses on change, vision, and adaptation to the environment.
What are task-oriented leadership behaviors?	Assigning tasks, clarifying duties, setting goals and deadlines, planning work, and providing feedback.
What are people-oriented leadership behaviors?	Showing concern for employees, recognizing contributions, listening, and creating a pleasant workplace.
What is the key idea of contingency theories of leadership?	The most effective leadership style depends on the situation.
What is path-goal theory?	A contingency theory stating that leaders are effective when their style complements employee and environmental conditions.
What are the four path-goal leadership styles?	Directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented.
What is directive leadership?	Providing structure and clear guidance about tasks.
What is supportive leadership?	Being friendly, approachable, and concerned with employee well-being.
What is participative leadership?	Involving employees in decisions beyond normal work activities.
What is achievement-oriented leadership?	Setting challenging goals and encouraging continuous performance improvement.
When is directive leadership most effective according to the lecture?	When employees are inexperienced and tasks are nonroutine or unclear.
When is supportive leadership most effective according to the lecture?	When employees are experienced, tasks are routine, and team cohesion or morale needs support.
When is participative leadership most effective according to the lecture?	When employees have a high internal locus of control and tasks are nonroutine.
When is achievement-oriented leadership most effective according to the lecture?	When employees are capable, motivated, and can respond well to challenging goals.
According to path-goal theory, supportive leadership is best suited to employees with what characteristics?	A lot of experience and strong team cohesion, especially in routine work.
What is leadership substitutes theory?	The idea that some situations either make a specific leadership style unnecessary or limit the leader’s ability to influence employees.
What is transformational leadership?	Leadership that communicates and models a shared vision, inspires followers, and leads organizational change.
Why are transformational leaders called change agents?	Because they try to change the organization to fit the external environment better.
What are the four transformational leadership elements emphasized in the slides?	Develop and communicate a strategic vision, model the vision, encourage experimentation, and build commitment to the vision.
What is a strategic vision?	An idealized future state with a higher purpose that motivates and unifies employees.
Why is a strategic vision often abstract?	Its abstractness helps it remain stable over time and apply broadly across situations.
What does it mean to communicate the vision?	Frame the message around a grand purpose and create a shared mental model of the future using stories, metaphors, and symbols.
What does it mean to model the vision?	Walk the talk by behaving in ways that symbolize and demonstrate the vision.
What does it mean to encourage experimentation?	Challenge current practices and support trying out new ideas in a learning-oriented way.
What does it mean to build commitment to the vision?	Increase employee attachment to the vision through communication, modeling, rewards, recognition, and celebration.
What are common positive outcomes of transformational leadership?	Higher employee satisfaction, performance, creativity, and organizational citizenship behavior.
What is one limitation of transformational leadership theory?	Some models are circular because they define transformational leaders partly by their success.
Why is transformational leadership not a fully universal theory?	Because leadership effectiveness can differ across cultures and situations.
What is the difference between transformational and charismatic leadership?	Charismatic leadership relies more on referent power and admiration, while transformational leadership relies more on vision, persuasion, trust, and empowerment.
Why can charisma be risky?	Because it can create dependency on the leader.
What is charisma?	A set of self-presentational and nonverbal behaviors that create attraction, inspiration, and referent power.
What characteristics are often associated with charismatic leaders?	Emotional expressiveness, strong communication skills, and self-confidence.
What is situational charisma?	Charisma that emerges mainly during crises and fades when the crisis is no longer salient.
What is the difference between socialized and personalized charismatic leaders?	Socialized charismatic leaders empower followers and serve collective interests, while personalized charismatic leaders pursue self-interest and create dependency.
What is implicit leadership theory?	The idea that followers evaluate leaders using preconceived prototypes of what effective leaders are like.
What is a leadership prototype?	A follower’s mental image of the traits and behaviors of an effective leader.
Why do leadership prototypes matter?	If someone looks and acts like a follower’s prototype, they are more likely to be accepted as a leader and judged effective.
What traits are often part of a leader prototype?	Confidence, dominance, high self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, intelligence, extraversion, and empathy.
What is the romance of leadership?	The tendency to overattribute organizational success or failure to leaders.
Why does the romance of leadership occur?	Because leadership is a psychologically attractive way to simplify complex events and preserve an illusion of control.
How does the fundamental attribution error contribute to the romance of leadership?	People credit or blame the leader rather than external conditions such as the economy or market forces.
What is one practical implication of implicit leadership theory?	Potential leaders who do not fit common prototypes need to provide stronger evidence of effectiveness.
Which leadership style seems relatively universal across cultures?	Charismatic or visionary leadership.
In which cultures is participative leadership more effective?	In lower power distance cultures.
What is power distance?	The extent to which less powerful people in a society expect and accept unequal power distribution.
What does the chapter suggest about gender differences in leadership?	Male and female leaders are more similar than different, though stereotypes may still influence perceptions.
If employees are highly capable and motivated by challenge, which path-goal style fits best?	Achievement-oriented leadership.
If employees want involvement in decision-making and have an internal locus of control, which path-goal style fits best?	Participative leadership.
If formal leaders are willing to delegate power, which leadership form is especially likely to work well?	Shared leadership.
If a leader inspires followers through a compelling future image and organizational change, which perspective is this?	Transformational leadership.
If a leader mainly clarifies tasks, sets deadlines, and supports current objectives, which perspective is this?	Managerial leadership.
If a question asks which perspective includes emotional intelligence, what is the answer?	The personal attributes perspective.
If a leader gives employees freedom to think and create, which transformational element is this?	Encouraging experimentation.
If a leader personally behaves in line with the company’s values, which transformational element is this?	Modeling the vision.
If a company is described as innovative, adventurous, and value-driven, which transformational element is most evident?	Developing a strategic vision.
If a leader repeatedly communicates a higher purpose using stories and speeches, which transformational element is most evident?	Communicating the vision.
What is the difference between leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness?	Emergence is who becomes seen as a leader, while effectiveness is how well the leader actually helps the group or organization succeed.
Why is it important to distinguish leader emergence from leadership effectiveness?	Because traits that make someone look like a leader do not always make them function well once in the role.
What is organizational structure?	The division of labor and the patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities.
What are the two core aspects of organizational structure?	Division of labor and coordination of work activities.
What is division of labor?	Splitting work into separate jobs and activities assigned to different people.
Why is division of labor only effective when coordination is good?	Because divided tasks must still fit together to accomplish common goals.
What are the three main coordination mechanisms?	Informal communication, formal hierarchy, and standardization.
What is coordination through informal communication?	Employees share information directly and form common mental models to synchronize work.
When is informal communication especially important?	In nonroutine, ambiguous, and changing situations.
What are liaison or integrator roles?	Roles that connect people or departments so they coordinate more easily through communication.
How do temporary cross-functional teams help coordination?	They bring together people from different areas to solve interdependent problems quickly.
What is coordination through formal hierarchy?	Coordination through direct supervision and the chain of command.
What makes formal hierarchy possible?	Legitimate power over others to direct work processes and allocate resources.
What is standardization as a coordination mechanism?	Creating routine patterns in behavior, outputs, or skills.
What are the three forms of standardization?	Standardized processes, standardized outputs, and standardized skills.
When does standardization work best?	When tasks are simple, routine, and predictable.
What is span of control?	The number of people directly reporting to the next hierarchical level.
What is a wide span of control?	Many direct reports and usually a flatter structure.
What is a narrow span of control?	Few direct reports and usually a taller structure.
What are disadvantages of tall structures?	Poor and slower upward information flow, more overhead costs, and lower empowerment and engagement.
What factors determine the optimal span of control?	The coordination mechanisms used, whether tasks are routine or complex, and the level of employee interdependence.
When can organizations have a wider span of control?	When tasks are routine, employees are less interdependent, and coordination is supported by standardization or strong informal communication.
What is centralization?	A structure in which formal decision authority is held by a small group of people, usually at the top.
What is decentralization?	A structure in which decision-making authority is dispersed throughout the organization.
When do organizations tend to decentralize more?	As they become larger and more complex.
What is formalization?	The degree to which behavior is standardized through rules, procedures, training, and related mechanisms.
What are advantages of formalization?	Efficiency, predictability, and compliance.
What are disadvantages of formalization?	Lower flexibility, lower creativity, lower job satisfaction, and higher work stress.
What is a mechanistic structure?	A structure with a narrow span of control, high formalization, and high centralization.
What is an organic structure?	A structure with a wide span of control, low formalization, and decentralized decision making.
When is an organic structure most appropriate?	In dynamic environments, for innovative strategies, and for tasks high in variability and low in analyzability.
When is a mechanistic structure most appropriate?	In stable environments, for low-cost strategies, and for tasks low in variability and high in analyzability.
What is departmentalization?	The way employees and their activities are grouped together.
What are the three functions of departmentalization emphasized in the lecture?	It establishes the chain of command, creates common mental models and focus, and encourages coordination by informal communication.
What is a functional structure?	A structure that organizes employees around specific knowledge, skills, or other resources.
What is a major advantage of a functional structure?	Greater specialization and efficiency.
What is a major disadvantage of a functional structure?	Weaker focus on products, services, or clients and more cross-department coordination problems.
What is a divisional structure?	A structure that organizes employees around outputs, clients, or geographical areas.
What is a major advantage of a divisional structure?	It focuses attention on products, services, clients, or regions.
What is a major disadvantage of a divisional structure?	It duplicates resources and creates knowledge silos.
If a company organizes marketing, finance, and production separately, which structure is this?	A functional structure.
If a company organizes employees by product line or region, which structure is this?	A divisional structure.
Which structure usually fits an innovation strategy?	An organic structure.
Which structure usually fits a low-cost strategy?	A mechanistic structure.
What are the three layers or dimensions of organizational culture?	Artifacts, shared values and norms, and shared assumptions.
What are values in organizational culture?	Stable evaluative beliefs about what is right, good, or desirable.
What is the difference between espoused and enacted values?	Espoused values are officially stated, while enacted values are the values actually reflected in behavior.
What are norms in organizational culture?	Informal rules and shared expectations about employee behavior.
What are assumptions in organizational culture?	Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs about the correct way to think and act.
What are artifacts in organizational culture?	Visible signs and symbols that express and reinforce culture.
Why are artifacts important?	They represent, maintain, strengthen, and communicate culture, especially to newcomers.
What are examples of artifacts?	Stories, rituals, ceremonies, language, workspace design, dress, and symbols.
What is meant by the content of organizational culture?	The particular pattern or ordering of values emphasized in the organization.
What are common culture content dimensions mentioned in the lecture?	Innovation, stability, respect for people, outcome orientation, attention to detail, team orientation, and aggressiveness.
Why are culture categories often criticized?	They oversimplify cultural diversity, ignore deeper assumptions, and miss subcultures.
What is a subculture?	A culture that exists within the organization alongside the dominant culture.
What is a counterculture?	A subculture that is contrary to the dominant culture.
Why can subcultures be useful?	They can support critical thinking, creativity, ethical behavior, and adaptation to a changing environment.
Why can subcultures also be risky?	They can become sources of conflict, dissension, or dysfunctional behavior.
What determines culture strength?	The degree to which employees understand and embrace dominant values, and the extent to which those values and assumptions are institutionalized through artifacts.
What are the three main functions of a strong culture?	Social control, social glue, and sense-making.
When is a strong culture most beneficial?	When it fits the environment, is adaptive, and is strong without becoming cult-like.
Why can a very strong culture become harmful?	It may suppress dissent, reduce adaptability, and drive out useful emerging values.
What is ASA theory?	Attraction–selection–attrition theory.
What does ASA theory propose?	Organizations attract, select, and retain people whose values and personalities fit the organization’s culture.
What is selection in ASA theory?	Organizations choose applicants who fit the culture.
What is attrition in ASA theory?	People whose values do not fit the culture are more likely to leave.
How can ASA theory strengthen culture?	It makes the workforce more homogeneous in values and assumptions.
What is a bicultural audit?	An assessment of the similarities, differences, and possible conflicts between two organizational cultures before combining them.
What are the four strategies for combining organizational cultures?	Assimilation, deculturation, integration, and separation.
What is assimilation in mergers?	The acquired organization embraces the acquiring organization’s culture.
What is deculturation in mergers?	The acquiring organization enforces its culture on the acquired organization, especially if there is resistance.
What is integration in mergers?	Combining the best parts of both cultures into a new culture.
What is a disadvantage of integration?	It is a very slow and difficult process.
What is separation in mergers?	Each organization keeps its own culture.
When is separation most useful?	When the organizations do different activities or are based in different countries.
What is organizational socialization?	The process by which people learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge needed to take on their role in the organization.
What are the three stages of organizational socialization?	Pre-employment, encounter, and role management.
What happens in the pre-employment stage?	People gather information and form expectations before entering the organization.
What happens in the encounter stage?	Newcomers compare their expectations with reality.
What happens in the role management stage?	Employees strengthen relationships, practice new roles, and resolve role conflicts as insiders.
What is reality shock?	Stress caused by differences between pre-employment expectations and actual organizational reality.
What is a realistic job preview?	A balanced description of the positive and negative aspects of a job and work context.
Why does a realistic job preview improve socialization?	It builds trust and reduces reality shock by creating more accurate expectations.
What are socialization agents?	People who help newcomers adjust, such as supervisors, coworkers, and buddies.
How do buddies improve socialization?	They provide accessible support, information, and social connection for newcomers.
If a structure groups employees by specialized expertise such as finance or marketing, which type is it?	Functional structure.
If a structure groups employees around products or geographic areas, which type is it?	Divisional structure.
If employee behavior is tightly guided by rules and procedures, which structure element is especially high?	Formalization.
If decision authority is concentrated at the top of the organization, which structure element is high?	Centralization.
If an organization wants innovation in a dynamic environment, should it be more organic or mechanistic?	More organic.
If a company wants maximum efficiency in a stable environment, should it be more organic or mechanistic?	More mechanistic.
If a merger keeps both original cultures intact, which strategy is being used?	Separation.
If a merger creates one new culture from the best aspects of both old cultures, which strategy is being used?	Integration.
If a company mainly hires and retains people who already fit its culture, which theory explains this?	ASA theory.
If a newcomer experiences stress because the real workplace differs from what they expected, what is this called?	Reality shock.
What is organizational change?	The adoption of a new idea or behavior by an organization.
What is change management?	The process of planning, implementing, and stabilizing organizational change.
What are Lewin’s three phases of change?	Unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.
What is unfreezing?	Creating motivation to leave the current state by increasing urgency and reducing resistance.
What is refreezing?	Stabilizing the new situation so people do not return to old routines.
Why is refreezing important?	Without it, people often slip back into familiar habits and comfort zones.
What is force field analysis?	A model stating that change depends on the balance between driving forces and restraining forces.
What are driving forces in force field analysis?	Forces that push the organization toward change, such as leadership support or employee enthusiasm.
What are restraining forces in force field analysis?	Forces that maintain the status quo, such as resistance, habits, or incompatible systems.
What does Lewin’s model imply for successful change?	Change works best when urgency is increased and restraining forces are reduced.
Why is increasing driving forces alone often ineffective?	Because it can provoke equally strong resistance.
Why should resistance to change be seen as a resource?	It may reveal deeper problems, improve decisions through task conflict, and give employees voice.
What are common forms of resistance to change?	Complaints, absenteeism, passive noncompliance, and other behaviors that oppose change.
What is negative valence of change?	Resistance caused by believing the change will lead to more negative than positive outcomes.
What is fear of the unknown?	Resistance caused by uncertainty about what the future change will bring.
What is not-invented-here syndrome?	Resistance because employees oppose ideas developed elsewhere in order to protect self-esteem or prove their own ideas were better.
What is breaking routines as a source of resistance?	Resistance caused by the effort, discomfort, and loss of habit involved in learning new routines.
What are incongruent team dynamics?	Team norms and relationships that discourage or contradict the desired change.
What are incongruent organizational systems?	Reward systems, information systems, structures, or selection practices that reinforce the old way of working.
What are the six common reasons people resist change?	Negative valence, fear of the unknown, not-invented-here syndrome, breaking routines, incongruent team dynamics, and incongruent organizational systems.
What is urgency for change?	A motivating force that makes employees feel that change is necessary now.
How can leaders create urgency for change?	By communicating external threats and opportunities, exposing employees to dissatisfied customers, or presenting a compelling positive vision of the future.
Why is creating urgency especially difficult when the organization is doing well?	Because employees do not feel strong external pressure to change.
How can direct contact with customers create urgency for change?	It reveals the human consequences of problems and makes the need for change more concrete.
What are the six strategies for minimizing resistance to change?	Communication, learning, involvement, stress management, negotiation, and coercion.
Why is communication the highest-priority strategy for change?	It creates urgency and reduces fear of the unknown.
What is the main drawback of communication as a change strategy?	It is time-consuming and costly.
How does learning reduce resistance to change?	It gives employees the skills and knowledge needed to adopt new roles and routines.
What is change self-efficacy?	Belief that one can function successfully in the changed situation.
How does learning increase readiness for change?	It strengthens change self-efficacy.
How does employee involvement reduce resistance?	It increases ownership, reduces fear of the unknown, and helps overcome not-invented-here syndrome.
What is a drawback of employee involvement?	It is time-consuming and can create conflict.
When is stress management useful in change?	When communication, learning, and involvement do not sufficiently reduce employee stress.
How can stress management reduce resistance?	It lowers fear of the unknown, reduces negative valence, and helps employees cope with the change process.
What is negotiation as a change strategy?	Offering benefits or resources in exchange for support or compliance.
When is negotiation most likely to be necessary?	When some employees clearly lose something from the change.
What is a limitation of negotiation?	It usually gains compliance rather than commitment.
What is coercion as a change strategy?	Using assertive influence, threats, or punishment to force compliance with change.
When is coercion typically used?	When all else fails or when speed is critical.
What is a limitation of coercion?	It reduces trust and may create more subtle resistance.
What role does leadership play in organizational change?	Leaders act as change agents by creating vision, direction, and support for the change effort.
How does transformational leadership help organizational change?	It links employee values to the change, clarifies roles, reduces fear, and creates direction through vision.
What is a guiding coalition?	A group of influential people from across the organization who support and drive the change effort.
Why is a guiding coalition important?	Because change agents usually cannot lead change successfully on their own.
Who should be included in a guiding coalition?	Respected and influential people from different functions and levels of the organization.
How do social networks support change?	They spread information, influence attitudes, and help behaviors diffuse through trusted relationships.
What is viral change?	A change process that spreads through social networks as employees influence one another.
What is a pilot project in organizational change?	A small-scale application of change in one unit before spreading it more broadly.
Why are pilot projects useful?	They reduce risk, test the change, and make it easier to show success before wider rollout.
What is needed to diffuse change successfully from a pilot project?	Motivation, ability, role clarity, and supportive situational factors.
How does motivation support diffusion from a pilot project?	Employees are more likely to adopt the change when they see rewards and visible success.
How does ability support diffusion from a pilot project?	Employees need skills, training, and opportunities to learn from others who used the change successfully.
How do role perceptions support diffusion from a pilot project?	Employees need to understand how the pilot project practices apply to their own work.
What situational factors support diffusion from a pilot project?	Resources, time, support, and structures that allow the change to be implemented elsewhere.
What is action research?	A problem-focused change process that combines action orientation and research orientation.
What does action orientation mean in action research?	Changing attitudes and behavior to improve the organization.
What does research orientation mean in action research?	Systematically collecting data to diagnose problems and evaluate change.
What are the main stages of action research?	Form client-consultant relationship, diagnose the need for change, introduce the intervention, evaluate and stabilize change, and disengage consultant services.
What happens in the first stage of action research?	A client-consultant relationship is established and readiness for change is assessed.
What happens in the diagnosis stage of action research?	Data are collected and analyzed to understand the problem and determine the change direction.
What happens in the intervention stage of action research?	One or more actions are introduced to address the diagnosed problem.
What happens in the evaluation and stabilization stage of action research?	The effectiveness of the intervention is assessed and the new state is stabilized.
What is appreciative inquiry?	A change approach that focuses on positive elements of the organization and builds change around strengths.
What are the five principles of appreciative inquiry mentioned in the lecture?	Positive principle, constructionist principle, simultaneity principle, poetic principle, and anticipatory principle.
What does the positive principle mean in appreciative inquiry?	Focus on what works well rather than on problems.
What does the constructionist principle mean?	Conversations shape organizational reality.
What does the simultaneity principle mean?	Inquiry and change happen at the same time.
What does the poetic principle mean?	People can choose how to interpret and frame their situation.
What does the anticipatory principle mean?	People are motivated by attractive future possibilities.
What are the four stages of appreciative inquiry?	Discovery, dreaming, designing, and delivering.
What happens in the discovery stage of appreciative inquiry?	Identifying the best of what currently exists.
What happens in the dreaming stage of appreciative inquiry?	Imagining what might be possible in the future.
What happens in the designing stage of appreciative inquiry?	Discussing what should be and how to shape the future.
What happens in the delivering stage of appreciative inquiry?	Developing objectives and actions for what will be.
What are large group interventions?	Change interventions that involve the whole system or large parts of it in extensive sessions.
What is an advantage of large group interventions?	They create high involvement across the organization.
What are limitations of large group interventions?	Limited opportunity for each person to contribute, dominance by a few people, hidden differences, and high expectations.
What is a parallel learning structure?	A highly participative social structure that is representative across the hierarchy and relatively free from formal constraints.
What is the purpose of a parallel learning structure?	To develop change solutions that can later be applied back into the larger organization.
What cross-cultural concern about change is mentioned in the lecture?	Change theories often assume open, linear conflict processes that may not fit all cultural values.
What ethical concerns in organizational change are highlighted in the lecture?	Privacy rights, management power, and employee self-esteem.
What is the MARS model used for in change diffusion?	To explain that successful diffusion requires motivation, ability, role perceptions, and situational support.
If managers resist restructuring because it would reduce their power or salary, what type of resistance is this?	Negative valence of change.
If employees resist change because they prefer the familiar old routines, what type of resistance is this?	Breaking routines.
If a company forms task forces to help employees design new practices, which resistance-reduction strategy is this?	Employee involvement.
If a company puts employees in direct contact with dissatisfied customers to highlight the need for improvement, what is it trying to create?	Urgency for change.
If a question asks for the correct sequence of appreciative inquiry stages, what is the answer?	Discovery, dreaming, designing, and delivering.
If a change approach starts by identifying positive elements rather than correcting problems, what is it?	Appreciative inquiry.
If a change approach combines data collection with intervention, what is it?	Action research.
If people support the change only because they are promised benefits in return, which strategy is being used?	Negotiation.
If management forces change through threats and assertive pressure, which strategy is being used?	Coercion.
What is a team?	A group of two or more people who exist to achieve organizational goals, are interdependent, influence one another, and perceive themselves as a team.
What is an informal group?	A group that exists primarily for the benefit of its members rather than directly for organizational objectives.
Why do employees join informal groups?	To satisfy the need to belong, strengthen social identity, gain emotional support, achieve personal objectives, and obtain information.
What is a coalition in organizations?	An informal group formed to achieve personal or political objectives.
What are the three team characteristics emphasized in the lecture?	Permanence, skill diversity, and authority dispersion.
What is permanence in teams?	How long a team exists, from a few hours to many years.
What is skill diversity in teams?	The variety of member skills and knowledge.
What is authority dispersion?	The degree to which decision-making responsibility is distributed across the team rather than centralized.
What is a departmental team?	A team made up of people from the same department who usually have relatively low skill diversity and lower authority dispersion.
What is a self-directed team?	A team with substantial autonomy and distributed responsibility for decisions and work processes.
What is a task force or project team?	A temporary team formed to accomplish a specific goal or project.
What is a remote team?	A team whose members communicate and coordinate primarily through communication technology across distance or time.
Why do organizations increasingly use teams?	Teams can combine knowledge, improve coordination, increase legitimacy of decisions, and potentially enhance motivation and creativity.
What is synergy in teams?	Performance gains that occur when the team produces outcomes greater than the sum of individual contributions.
What are process losses in teams?	Resources such as time and energy spent on developing and maintaining the team rather than on the task itself.
What is Brooks’s law?	Adding more people to a late or complex project can slow it down even more.
What is social loafing?	Reduced individual effort when working in a team compared with working alone.
What is the Ringelmann effect?	The tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases.
When is social loafing more likely?	When individual performance is hidden, work has low significance, team motivation is weak, or team identity and cohesion are low.
How can teams reduce social loafing?	Make individual performance visible, form smaller teams, specialize tasks, increase task significance, strengthen team identity, and select motivated team-oriented members.
What is the team effectiveness model?	A model explaining team effectiveness through team environment, team design, and team processes.
What environmental conditions best support effective teams?	Team-based rewards, frequent communication supported by design and technology, supportive leadership, and clustered work activities.
What task characteristics make work ideal for teamwork?	Complex work divided into specialized roles, relatively well-structured tasks, and higher task interdependence.
What is task interdependence?	The extent to which team members depend on one another to accomplish their tasks.
Why is higher task interdependence important for teamwork?	It increases the need for coordination and makes teamwork more beneficial.
What team size is usually best?	Smaller teams, often around six members, because they have fewer process losses and stronger engagement, as long as they are large enough to do the work.
Why do smaller teams often perform better?	They coordinate more easily, develop faster, know each other better, and feel more responsible for team success.
What team composition factors improve team effectiveness?	Members should be motivated, capable, understand their roles, and work well with one another.
How can team diversity improve performance?	It broadens knowledge, skills, perspectives, and representation, which can improve creativity and problem solving.
What is a risk of team diversity?	Slower team development and greater susceptibility to faultlines.
What are faultlines in teams?	Hypothetical dividing lines that split a team into subgroups based on aligned differences.
What is a team mental model?	A shared understanding of the team’s tasks, roles, and interaction patterns.
Why are team mental models important?	They improve coordination, anticipation of others’ actions, and overall team effectiveness.
What are the four stages of team development?	Forming, storming, norming, and performing.
What happens during the forming stage?	Members discover expectations, test boundaries, evaluate membership, and often defer to authority.
What happens during the storming stage?	Conflict emerges, members compete for roles, influence goals and means, and begin establishing norms.
What happens during the norming stage?	Roles become clearer, agreement develops around objectives, team mental models emerge, and cohesion increases.
What happens during the performing stage?	The team becomes task-oriented, coordinated, cooperative, trusting, and effective at resolving conflict.
What are team norms?	Informal rules and shared expectations that regulate team-relevant behavior.
Why do team norms develop?	They improve predictability, avoid conflict, support social order, and connect behavior to team well-being and performance.
What is a team role?	A set of behaviors that a person is expected to perform in the team.
How are formal and informal team roles different?	Formal roles are assigned during team formation, while informal roles emerge during team development and reflect personal characteristics.
What is team cohesion?	The degree of attraction members feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members.
What factors strengthen team cohesion?	Higher member similarity, smaller team size, frequent interaction, somewhat difficult entry, team success, and external competition or challenge.
Why do high-cohesion teams often perform better?	Members are more motivated to stay and succeed, share more information, support each other, and resolve conflict more effectively.
When does team cohesion most strongly improve performance?	When task interdependence is high and team norms support organizational objectives.
Why can high cohesion sometimes hurt performance?	If team norms are counterproductive, cohesion motivates members to conform to those harmful norms.
What is trust in teams?	Positive expectations one person has toward another person or group in situations involving risk.
What are the three levels of trust?	Calculus-based trust, knowledge-based trust, and identification-based trust.
What is calculus-based trust?	Trust based on a logical calculation that others will act appropriately because of incentives or consequences.
What is knowledge-based trust?	Trust based on predictability and confidence in another person’s competence and reliability.
What is identification-based trust?	Trust based on mutual understanding, shared values, and emotional bonds.
Which level of trust is strongest?	Identification-based trust.
What is swift trust?	An initially high but fragile level of trust that often appears quickly in new organizational teams.
What is team building?	Formal activities intended to improve team development and functioning.
What goals can team building target?	Performance goals, problem-solving skills, role clarity, or interpersonal relations.
When is team building most effective?	When it is tailored to the team, based on sound analysis, focused on clear objectives, and supported by long-lasting on-the-job reflection.
What are common constraints on team decision making?	Production blocking, coordination time, evaluation apprehension, conformity pressure, and overconfidence.
What is production blocking?	A loss of productivity because team members must wait their turn to speak or cannot express ideas simultaneously.
What is evaluation apprehension in teams?	Reluctance to share ideas because of concern about being judged by others.
What is peer pressure to conform?	Suppression of opinions that oppose team norms or the apparent majority view.
What general guidelines improve team decision making?	Use checks and balances, maintain optimal size, encourage confidence but avoid overconfidence, support critical-thinking norms, build psychological safety, and use structures that support creativity.
What are the four classic brainstorming rules?	Do not criticize, welcome wild ideas, focus on quantity, and combine or improve others’ ideas.
Why often does brainstorming underperform in lab studies?	Because of fixation, production blocking, and evaluation apprehension.
When can brainstorming still be effective?	When there is a supportive facilitator and a supportive culture.
What is brainwriting?	Generating ideas individually and silently rather than through spoken brainstorming.
Why is brainwriting often better than brainstorming?	It reduces production blocking and often produces more and more creative ideas.
What is electronic brainstorming?	Brainwriting supported by computers or digital tools.
Why can electronic brainstorming outperform traditional brainstorming?	It reduces production blocking, evaluation apprehension, and fixation.
What is the nominal group technique?	A structured method combining individual idea generation with an interactive group stage.
How does the nominal group technique compare with traditional brainstorming?	It is generally better than traditional brainstorming, though some constraints still remain.